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Nicolaas or Nicolaes Witsen (1641 –1717) was a Dutch statesman who was mayor of Amsterdam thirteen times, between 1682-1706. In 1693 he became administrator of the VOC. In 1689 he was extraordinary-ambassador to the English court, and became Fellow of the Royal Society. In his free time he was cartographer, maritime writer, and an authority on shipbuilding. His books on the subject are important sources on Dutch shipbuilding in the 17th century. He is most know for his 1671 book Aeloude and hedendaegsche Scheepsbouw en Bestier. Regrettably, I do NOT read Dutch - I wish I could! I have come across several scanned versions of his book online. This first one is down loadable as a PDF: https://archive.org/details/gri_33125008247716 It may also be read on-line here (this may be an annotated version as the pagination differs from that above): http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/wits008arch01_01/ A review of this book was published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London, 1671, pp 3006-3012. http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/6/69-80/3006 Here is the text of that review: The Ingenious and Industrious Author of this Work having considered with himself, that his Country-men, though so flourishing in Navigation and Naval Architecture, had yet published nothing of that subject, except what De Heer Tjassens had written of the Politie of Shipping, did resolve with himself to break that silence, and to communicate unto the World a History both of the Ancient and Modern way of Building, Equipping, and Governing of Ships; which design having been by him put in execution in this Book, he therein largely treateth not only of the Manner of the Naval Architecture used by the Greeks and Romans, together with their Naval Exercises, Battles, Discipline, Laws and Customs; but also of the Method and Way used at this day both in his own Country, England, France, and the Indies, together with the difference there is between the Manner of Building Ships, practised by Others, from that of the Dutch, and particularly of the Indian way of Equipping their Ships, and the manner of Building Galleys: All inriched with an ample Seamans Dictionary, and a great number of Illustrating Diagrams. The whole Work is divided into Two main Parts; The First contains XIX Chapters; whereof, 1. Giveth an account of the first Builders of Ships, and in general of the Building of the Antients, both before and after the Deluge; where the Author particularly discourseth of Noah's Ark; of divers Ships found deep under ground; of the structure of the Ship Argo; of the Navigation of the Phenicians, Rhodians, Corinthians, Ægyptians, Tyrians, Cretians, &c. 2. Delivers the Way of the Naval Architecture of the Greeks and Romans, both for War and Commerce, together with the manner of Equipping their Ships row'd with Oars, both of single and manifold ranks, and the sitting of the Rowers: Where he treats of the Biremis Pistrix; the Biremis Vallata Oneraria Cerealis Siracusia; the Biremis and Tiremis turrita; the Triremis vallata, &c. 3. Discourseth of several sorts of the Ancients Structure of Ships, and chiefly of the great Vessels built by Philopater and Hiero, the pompous make of both which is here represented; as also of the numerousness and launching of their Ships. 4. Enumerateth divers un-common Observables in Ships both of Ancient and Later times, as in Noah's Ark, the Ships of Argo, Theoris, Paralon, Salamine, Magellan, Drake, &c. To which he adds that Noble Fregat built in England A. 1637, called the Soverain, of 1637 Tuns, having a keel that was to be drawn by 28 oxen and 4 horses; as also a Description of the Spanish Armada of 1588, called the Invincible; not forgeting the Bucentoro of the Venetians; nor the Mageleza of the Suedes, a Man of war, appearing at Sea about 100 years since, and having sides of that thickness, that all bullets stuck within her boards. In this Chapter is inserted a Relation of a Ship found in the time of Pius II. in the Numidian Sea, 12 fathoms under water, 30 foot long and of a proportionable breadth, built of Cyprus and Larix wood, and reduced to that hardness, that it would hardly burn; as it was also very hard to cut: No signs in it of any rottenness any where; its deck cover'd with paper, linnen and leaden plates, fastned with guilt nails, as also were the boards; the whole ship so close, that not a drop of water was found soaked through into any close room. The Author concludeth it to have lain there about 1400 years. 5. Relateth, what great Fleets were anciently set out, and what far voyages undertaken: where he taketh particular notice of the Expedition of the Argonautes, of Xerxes, of Alexander M, of Rome, and Cartage, of the Saxons, Britons, &c. 6. Describeth what the Antients observed in Building their Ships, and how they closed, rigged and beautified them; where occur several relations of divers ways of cementing, caulking, pitching; and defending ships from rottenness and worms; of which I shall only mention, what occasionally he alledgeth of a certain cement now used by the Indians, made of finely beaten reeds, chalk, and oyl, with which their Ships are over-laid to keep them from rotting. 7. Rehearseth the State of Naval Architecture after the Ruine of the Roman Empire; especially amongst the Scyhians, and Saracens, invading Italy, Spain, France, &c; together with the endeavors of the Romans under Justinian and others, to defend themselves against those Barbarians: Not omitting, what was done by the Danes, Huns, English, Saxons, and particularly by that Brave and Vigilant King Edgar, who maintained a Fleet of 3600 sail, which he divided into three Squadrons, called the Eastern, Western and Northern, sailing in them himself every year round about England and Scotland. To this he annexeth, at what time Shipping was at the lowest ebb, and how it began to be restored by some Kings of Portugal, the Frieslanders, and his Countrymen in general, about 200 years since. 8. Giveth an ample and very particular account of the present way of Building Ships, both for War and Trade, in Holland. Where are represented not only the Parts of a Ship in their several Figures, together with their Names, and Uses; but also a whole Ship, perfectly rigg'd, and on it the parts marked, with reference to the annexed Discourse, wherein they are described. 9. Contains a particular Description of the Proportions of all the Parts of a Dutch ship, and the Measures of some peculiar sorts of Vessels of that Country: Where he instanceth in several Ships of different lengths, as of 134, 160, 150, 140, 125, 130, feet long; as also in a Frigot, 130 feet long; and assigneth the measures and proportions of the respective parts thereof; Adding withall an account of divers Frigots and other Ships, there built by some of their most famous Shipwrigths, to the number of Twenty six. 10. Declareth the Make and Weight of all sorts of Ankers, and the bigness and weight of Cables in general, and in particular of certain Ships built there; as also the measures and proportions of Masts, and Sails, of divers Vessels, and how Sails may be best ordered to take in most wind, mathematically shown: Where Occasion is taken to insert considerable remarks about the several sorts of Hemp, and the best way of working Cables, and the care to be had in the manner of tarring them, and in the degree of heating the tar for that purpose, &c. 11. Delivers the Method of conjoyning the parts of a Ship one after another, used by Dutch Ship wrights; together with a representation of a Ship upon the Stocks, and their manner of Launching ships: Adding their way of redressing a ship that lieth on her side, as well as of laying her on her side for re-pairing or cleansing; and intimating also, that amongst them a ship 180 or 185 feet long, can conveniently be built up, by 50 men, in 5 months; and that the charges of building a ship, 165 feet long, 43 feet broad, and 31 feet high, built of the best timber, amounts to 74152 gilders; besides its ironwork, which together with its rigging comes to 19483 gilders more, without the warlick equipage: Judging withall, that such a ship, well built and kept with care, may last 20, 30, 40, to 50 years; mentioning also, that he had seen a certain English vessel, of 70 years old, and not yet altogether useless. 12. Speaks of the measures and proportions of several other Sea-vessels, that are of a structure and use different from that of the former; such as are Flutes, Green-land-vessels for Whale-fishing, Advice-yachts, Boyars, Galliots, Fire-ships, Pinks, Busses, &c. 13. Treats of other sorts of Vessels, as Coasters, Yachts, Challoups, Lighters, Boats, Skiffs, Double-bottom'd Vessels, ships rising without being unladen, and such as move, under water, or against the stream, and especially of a Vessel used at Amsterdam, whereby in one day may be fetch'd up 50 or 60 boats of mud, performed by the means of a big wheel and large spoons. In the same Chapter, instructions are given concerning the Choice of Ship-Timber; where are to be found many necessary and very useful Observations and Directions relating to the purpose in hand, and a particular commendation of the English and Irish Oak for ships. To all which is added an Enumeration of all sorts of Tools and Engins requisite for this kind of building. 14. Considers the Structure of Galleys and Galleasses in particular, and what is peculiar in them and different from other ships; taking also notice in brief of Galeasses, Brigantines, Feluccas, &c. 15. Discourseth of the Proportions observed by the English and French in the building of their respective ships: Where he taketh special notice of Four Frigats of four distinct rates; exhibiting and describing there as they are to be found in the Duke of Northumberland, Robert Dudley, his Arcano del Mare, printed at Florence; and concluding this Chapter with a description of the Frigat called the Royal Charles, (some years since fallen into Dutch hands,) and an Encomium of the English Orders at Sea. 16. Maketh a Narrative of the Indian way of framing ships: Where first of all occur the Canoe's and their Structure out of one only Tree, hollow'd by burning. Next, the Chinese Yonks of Nankin (a sort of flat bottom'd Boats,) and other Vessels of the same Country; among which those are described, that are as big as little Islands, and hold many houses and families, floating upon the waters, and going up and down through all the parts of China that have the conveniency of navigable rivers: To which is added a description of a Royal Chinese boat, of a Serpentin shape, sent to receive the Dutch Ambassadors in those parts. Then the ships of Malabar, Ternate, Sumatra, Japan, Terra del Fuego, (in which last are made very artificial boats of the Barks of the thickest Trees, as in Malabar some are made of large Canes, called Bambu Moreover of Borneo and Calecut. After this, the Author returns to China, and relateth, that ships are found there, which upon rollers sail over Land; and giveth a large account of the vast number of ships; both warlike and markantile, maintained in that Empire; together with the odd Architecture of the same, and the skil of that people in Navigation; as also an intimation taken out of Martinius, touching the Ancientness of the Chinese Shipping, and their Colonies found setled in Madagoscar, and their Sailing in old times even as far as to the Red Sea. He concludeth this Chapter with describing the ships of Madagascar, Bengala, Macassar, Siam, Pegu, Maldives, Ormus, Congo, Russia, Lapland, Virginia, &c. 17. Demonstrates, how much weight of water there lieth against a Ship moving at Sea; having first laid down certain propositions made out by Stevinus in his Hydrostaticks; which Writers foot-steps our Author acknowledgeth to have follow'd herein. Besides he examins also the Center of Gravity of a Ship; which being known, it may be certainly concluded. How a Ship is to lye upon the water, and how heavy it is when 'tis floating, whether loaden or unloaden. Lastly he imparts the way of the Excellent Hudde, of calculating exactly, what burthen a ship can carry either in Salt or Sweet water? Where he also examins the weight of the water; in which a Ship is floating; for which purpose he caused to be made a Cube of Copper-plates, of half an Amsterdam-foot a side, fitted after a certain manner, too particular to be here related, whereby he found, that upon the 15th of March, a foot of Rain water weighed 49lb. 14½ ounces; and Y-water, 46lb. 2 1/8 ounces; and Texel-water, 46 lb. 9 ounces. To all which he adds the way of measuring the Quantity of a Ship's burthen, that hath been agreed upon between the King of Denmark and the States of the United Provinces; as also several ways of doing the same, used by other Nations, and particularly that of the English and French. 18. Explains and gives reasons for the several sizes and shapes of the parts of a ship; as why the Masts ought just to be of such a hulk and height? Why some of them must incline backward, some stand upright? Why a small Rudder can turn a great Ship; and a little Anker stay it? What maketh Ships not feel the Rudder? Why Vessels too broad are weak and prove inconvenient in high Winds? Why long and moderately narrow Ships endure the Sea better, than short and broad ones? How the Keel ought to be placed? Why Gallions and the parts of them are fram'd as they are? Why a Ship is to be broader before, then abaft? That Fregats, built long, narrow and low, sail best. What hinders well-sailing? Why Turkish Vessels are excellent Sailers? And many questions more, considered by this Author. 19. Reckons up the particulars of the loose apparatus neccessary in a moderately far Voyage for an hundred men, in a ship 134 foot long, both for her conduct and defence, and the Food of the Marriners. And so much of the First Part of this Book. The Second part comprehends the EQUIPPING and Conduct of Ships, and Navies, as well by the Antients as Moderns; couched in IV. Chapters. 1. Discourseth of the Equipping and Ordering of Ships and Sea-men, practised by the Greeks and Romans; as also of the Old rights and Laws of Marriners, their Victuals, Encouragements, Punishments, and Arms, together with their manner of Fighting, and Triumphing upon a victory obtained where are related several Sea-battels and their Events; as also divers famous Pirats, recorded in the Roman History. 2. Describeth the present Conduct and Government of the States General of the United Provinces in ther Warlike Fleets; together with their Orders for Convoy-ships. Where are inferred the particular Commands and Instructions given by the said States in the late War between England and that Republick; as also their Placaet concerning Prizes. To all which is subjoined the Ship-masters and Stiermans way of disciplining the Sea-men, and the manner and form of commanding them to perform their part according to the several occasions at Sea. Which Chapter is concluded with several remarks concerning the Load-stone and the Sea-Compass, and especially with what care the Needle for the Compass is to be touch't by the, Magnet. 3. Observeth the Ordering of Merchant-ships, and the Conduct of Admiralties; as also how they man and arm their Trade-ships in general, and in particular those that navigate Nord ward, and their Herring-Busses; as also those that saile to the Mediterranean. Further, how things are managed amongst them on Ship-board, in reference to the Seamen, Officers, Souldiers, &c. in their Navigation to the East and West-Indies, Greenland, &c. In this Chapter 'tis also represented, what benefits redound to a Country by Shipping, as to the increase both of its Power and Wealth. 4. Contains a Sea-Dictionary, explaining, the Names of the parts of a ship, and the words and phrases used among Seamen for all sorts of naval concerns. Here are two of the plates to give some idea of the materials included:

Interesting quest - have you seen this book: Barnstable and Yarmouth, sea captains and ship owners (1913) by Francis Sprague, available free at https://archive.org/details/barnstableyarmou00spra I'll do some checking into some of my other books and see what I find - may be something in one of the books by Basil Lubbock, Howard Chapelle or David MacGregor.

Continuing to ponder and contemplate, let me ask whether anyone has found any contracts from, say, prior to 1750 that include the draught of water?

Mr. Berry (see my above post on the 1924 conference) offers the following: The method used by Mr. (afterwards Sir Anthony) Deane of calculating the displacement of ships is unknown; but it appears that about 1700 this was effected by dividing the body by equidistant sections, calculating the area of each and thence obtaining the displacement by some rough process of quadrature. There is, however, no record of any such calculations, and it is probable they were but rarely performed. Nowacki and Ferreiro, in their 2003 paper “Historical Roots of the Theory of Hydrostatic Stability of Ships”, offer the following: Deane demonstrates two methods to calculate the area underneath waterlines at each “bend” or frame of the hull; using either (1) an approximation for the area of a quarter-circle or (2) by dividing the area into rectangles and triangles. Deane then sums the areas for each frame, multiplies by the frame spacing and multiplies the volume by the specific weight of water to obtain the displacement. He does this for several different waterlines, including the desired waterline below the gunports. When a ship is launched, he can immediately determine the light displacement, and then calculate how much weight should be added to arrive at the design waterline.

Looking through volume I of the Humphreys Papers, there are numerous references to the draught of water, but I only find the following that hints at the process (note that the upper drawing was added by the transcriptionist to aid in understanding the process): There are also indications that either Joshua or Samuel did utilize mathematical techniques during the 19th century: The Franklin left Philadelphia June 24th 1817 at 8 o’clock AM. July 17 the Franklin took in 29 long 32 pdrs which weighted 1781 cwt. This weight settled the ship 3½ inches. Her draught of water after these guns were taken in was Aft 23 – 1, forwd20 – 3. At this depth it required 19½ tons to settle the ship 1 inch. The originals can be viewed at the link below. Note that this volume is a long term set of notes for use by the builder - starts with the 1719 Establishment and includes a bit of everything from brief descriptions of vessels to a design for a new ships steering wheel. Some interesting stuff! Humphreys, Joshua. “Volume 1: ‘Principal Dimensions.’ Joshua Humphreys Papers (Collection 0306).” Text. Philadelphia, 1770-1838. Historical Society of Pennsylvania. http://digitallibrary.hsp.org/index.php/Detail/Object/Show/object_id/10371and the description is at http://www2.hsp.org/collections/manuscripts/h/Humphreys306.html.

IT is a challenge, for certain! Came across this quote from the Director of Naval Construction, The Admiralty, London, England entitled The Influence of Mathematics on the Development of Naval Architecture. in Proceedings of the International Mathematical Congress Held in Toronto, August 11-16, 1924 "The employment of ships for various purposes dates back to very early ages, but the science of Naval Architecture is of comparatively modern growth. Ships have advanced in size, speed, equipment and structural strength, but the progress from the primitive log or bundle of reeds used by the ancients to the 100-gun ship of the eighteenth century was effected wholly by methods of trial and error. It was then impossible to predict the draught at which a new ship would float, or ensure that she would possess sufficient stability and satisfactory seagoing qualities. In consequence changes in design frequently proved to be the reverse of improvements, and it was commonly necessary to add girdling around the waterline of ships found defective in stability." So much anecdotal information, and so few contemporary sources! Still digging and parsing - stay tuned for more! Please keep those thoughts, observations and suggestions coming!!!!

The copy of the Hackett draught that I have (from Frigate Essex Papers: Building the Salem Frigate, 1798-1799) does not show a load water line. The plans drafted by John Stevens in 1952 as well as the sets from Portia Takajian do show a LWL but it is not clear how they determined the placement.

Very impressive looking- why not go the whole way and actually put in some treenails? What's 260 little bits more.....

For those interested in Danish shipbuilding, the following Master's Thesis may be of interest. Massimiliano Ditta. 2014. “Ole Judichær and Danish Naval Ship Construction and Design in the Late 17th Century: A Preliminary Analysis of the Model of the 54-Gun Prinz Wilhelm in the Collection of the Royal Danish Naval Museum.” Master’s Thesis. Maritime Archaeology Programme, University of Southern Denmark. https://www.academia.edu/6915299/Ole_Judich%C3%A6r_and_Danish_Naval_Ship_Construction_and_Design_in_the_late_17th_Century_A_preliminary_analysis_of_the_model_of_the_54-gun_Prinz_Wilhelm_in_the_collection_of_the_Royal_Danish_Naval_Museum.

That is, actually, the way it usually worked - I am trying to get to how they determined that waterline since, from all indications, the use of the mathematical methods was not common prior to the late 1700's (not to mention the relative low mathematical abilities of most shipbuilders). It's been interesting moving through the literature (mainly written in ye olde Englifh, including the relatively random punctuation and spelling of the times) to try and discern a methodology. Even many of the secondary sources seem to move from the development of the science to the use for stability calculations but little on the interegnum of ship design. For me, the search for information is certainly a pleasure - just wish I could read Dutch, French, Spanish, Italian and Venetian (not to mention Latin) so I could get into the works by Duhamel du Monceau, Pierre Bouguer and others that had some of the earlier works on the topic (the English were particularly tardy in adapting scientific methods to design ships. I suspect that their colonies in the America's were likewise slow to implement).

I do, and have been using it extensively. I am trying to go from the info there and find where some of the notable shipbuilders and designers actually applied the methods during the design stage but thus far not finding much. Ferreiro also has an interesting paper that looks specifically at the influence of Aristotle on naval architecture: Ferreiro, Larrie. 2010. “The Aristotelian Heritage in Early Naval Architecture. From the Venice Arsenal to the French Navy, 1500-1700.” Theoria 68: 227–41. The challenge is the transition from scientific inquiry to practical application. Steele has some wonderful description of the use of these methods to determine the volume submerged, but then rather than calculating it for a given design suggests using a ratio of depth of hold to the moulded breadth (for example 7/16 for a line of battle ship). Sutherland, about a century earlier, likewise provides detailed mathematical instruction yet then states a specific height for the waterline with no description.

I am working on a paper concerning the process used to determine the load waterline in the 16th through mid 19th centuries and could use some help. I have found an abundance of information concerning the application of Archimedes' principle on buoyancy and displacement, but to date I have only been able to find where it was applied to determine the actual displacement of a vessel when already in the water. The primary sources I have checked thus far (such as Sutherland, Steel, Humphreys, Mungo Murray, Stalkart etc. - still working through many, and have not gotten far in the works in other languages such as French and Italian, though they were far ahead of the English in adopting scinetific methods) all discuss the waterline but, rather than describe how to determine the level, they provide a set value. I came across this from The Sea-Man’s Vade Mecum: Containing the Most Necessary Things for Qualifying Seamen of All Ranks. Printed and Sold by James Woodward behind the Royal-Exchange (1707): ...the true way of Measure, must be by measuring of the Body and Bulk of the Ship under Water, for if one Ship be longer in the Floor than another of the same Breadth and Length, she shall be more in Burthen than the other; as a Flemish Ship shall carry more than a French or Italian Vessel of the same Length or Breadth; therefore, I say, the Measure of a Ship is known by measuring her, as a piece of Timber may be measured of the Form, to the draught of the Water, assign'd her, the weight of the same Body of the same Water that the Ship swimmeth in, shall be the exact Weight of the Ship, and all things therein, Loading, Rigging, Victuals included therein: then if the Ship be measured to her light Mark, as she will swim at being launched, the Weight of so much Water being taken or subtracted from the Weight of the Water when she is laden, the Residue shall be the Weight that must load Ability of carrying, called her Burthen. By this means you may know the Weight of the Ship light, and what she will carry to every Foot of Water assigned to her, which can be done by no general Rules in Arithmetick, because of their great Irregularity, according to the differing Forms of Ship; you may, if you please, first measure the Content of the Keel, Post, Stem and Rudder, all of it that is without the Plank, and under the Water-line, and note it by it self; then measure the Body of the Ship in the Mid-ships, by multiplying of the depth of the Water-line, and the breadth; then you may find the Content of the Want by the circular part of the Ship under Water, being narrowed downward, and subtract this from the whole Content of the Body found, by the depth of the Water-line and breadth of the Ship, and this shall be the solid Content of that part of the Ship, I mean, of solid Foot Measure, of 1728 Inches to the Foot; then proceed to the fore part or after part of a Ship, and to 3 or 4 Timbers more, find the mean Breadth at the narrowing aloft at the Waterline, and allow at the Floor and the mean Depth, and measure that piece of the Ship, as I told you of the middle part of the Ship, and so measure the whole Ship by pieces, and add them together; and so many Feet as it maketh, so many Feet of Water shall be the Weight of the said Ship, and the Reason may be considered thus: There is a Ponderosity in the Water, but there is a greater in the Air; and there is a Ponderosity in the Water it self, but not so much as in other things more solid, as in Iron: Suppose a Gun or an Anchor of Iron it sinketh in the Water, but yet is not so heavy in the Water as in the Air, by the weight of so much Water as shall make a Body equal to the Body of a Gun, or an Anchor in Magnitude; which Weight substracted [sic] from the Weight of the Iron Body weighed in the Air, and so much must be the Weight of it in the Water. While it encompasses both Aristotlean (for example, There is a Ponderosity in the Water, but there is a greater in the Air; and there is a Ponderosity in the Water it self, but not so much as in other things more solid, as in Iron: Suppose a Gun or an Anchor of Iron it sinketh in the Water, but yet is not so heavy in the Water as in the Air, by the weight of so much Water as shall make a Body equal to the Body of a Gun, or an Anchor in Magnitude; which Weight substracted [sic] from the Weight of the Iron Body weighed in the Air, and so much must be the Weight of it in the Water) and Archimedes concepts (then if the Ship be measured to her light Mark, as she will swim at being launched, the Weight of so much Water being taken or subtracted from the Weight of the Water when she is laden, the Residue shall be the Weight that must load Ability of carrying, called her Burthen.), I have not found where designers, in crafting the model and plans, applied these concepts. I find some reference to this in works by Deane and Chapman, but most of what I find is actually descriptive of finding the stability of a vessel. Have any of you come across any treatises prior to the late 1700's where the principle of buoyancy was applied during the design stage to find the load waterline, or was most of it based on institutional knowledge? Appreciate any leads or insights - and THANKS!

Glad to see another Revenue Cutter build - I hope to get back to mine in the next couple of months and see if I can recover from my earlier unfair faring!

Nice looking work, kindly sir. The wood contrasts are very nice!

Very nice work, boss. What color difference?

During one of my wanderings around the world of old nautical and maritime books, I happened across this gem from 1669: The mariner's magazine; or, Sturmy's mathematical and practical arts. Containing, the description and use of the scale of scales; it being a mathematical ruler, that resolves most mathematical conclusions: and likewise the making and use of the crostaff, quadrant, and the quadrat, nocturnals, and other most useful instruments for all artists and navigators ... By Capt. Samuel Sturmy I have not been able to turn up much about Captain Sturmy, however it appears tha, while he died young, his compilation was well respected. In it (and it will take a long time to download at 7o meg at Google Books) is a plethora of 17th century information ranging from astronomy to ordnance, and sections on floating a sunken vessel and measurement of tunnage. Have only begun to explore this wonderful resource! https://books.google.com/books?id=82ibXN6yUzwC

Probably paper for a.... wait for it, and I really can't believe I am saying this, but Paper from a Canon Copier?

All the best superlatives have already been used, Sherry, so I'll just say "wow"!!!

Very nice, Sjors. I think the glass in the third window from the right is smudged - you may need to clean that one. That bulkhead looks very nice - almost seems a crime somehow to hide those cannon below another deck!

Since the scales for model building are given in a couple of ways (1/8" scale or 1:96 scale) it sometimes becomes necessary to find the ration (1:96) from a fractional inch (1/8"). The method Stuntflyer shows takes the fraction (1/8) does the division to get a decimal (0.125). Since 0.125" = 1 foot at scale, and not sure why this works but it does, divide 12 inches per foot by the decimall (0.125) to get the ratio 1:96 (1 inch scale = 96 inches real). Also works for other scales - 1/4"=1 foot becomes 12/0.25 = 1:48 3/32"=1foot becomes 12/0.9375 = 1:128 1/16" = 1 foot is 1:192 1/2" = 1 foot is 1:24 and so on. This may not work as neatly when converting metric - haven't attempted that part yet!

In The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (Peter Kemp, editor - 1976), there is a definition: a name sometimes given to the bollards which line a quay or wharf and to which ships lying alongside secure their hawsers. The name may have its origin from the fact that bollards are usually painted black... Falconer (1784 edition) does not use the term nigger head.

I am still looking through my various and sundry pdf files (regrettably, most are scanned images of the pages so not searchable without running an OCR on them, which for some of these would take longer than skimming!), and came across the following from Blunt's Seamanship both in Theory and Practice...published in 1813. (available on Google Books at http://books.google.com/books/about/Seamanship_both_in_theory_and_practice.html?id=cPpOAAAAYAAJ )

In the most basic way of looking at it, 5/32" = 1 foot is the same as 5/32"=12". Rearranging you get 5" = (12 x 32) or 5" = 384" which gives about 1"=76.8" (or 1:76.8). What the 1:x gives is how many units (in this case inches) at full size are represented by 1 inch at scale size. Also works for mm, cm, cubits etc.